Machinery & Energetics

Hydrogen and ammonia as next-generation marine fuels in line with IMO 2050

Oleksii Melnyk, Mykola Bulgakov, Valentyna Ocheretna, Tetiana Varlan
Download article
Abstract

This article presents an interdisciplinary analysis of hydrogen (H₂) and ammonia (NH₃) as promising alternative energy carriers for maritime transport within the framework of the International Maritime Organization’s 2050 Climate Strategy. The study aimed to determine the comparative efficiency of these fuels, taking into account their thermodynamic properties, storage requirements, operational safety, infrastructural compatibility, and economic feasibility. A multi-criteria assessment method was applied, incorporating analysis of Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE), Energy Return on Investment (EROI), Capital Expenditures (CAPEX) and Operational Expenditures (OPEX), technical readiness of port and vessel infrastructure, environmental impacts, and potential risks. Particular attention is given to toxicological aspects, fire hazards, leakage scenarios, and crew training requirements. Data from real-world and pilot projects in Japan, Norway, and the EU are presented, illustrating practical steps towards the adoption of H₂/NH₃. The findings indicate that ammonia, despite its toxicity and the need for additional safety measures, is technologically and economically more suitable for medium- and long-distance shipping due to lower transport costs and the possibility of utilising existing liquefied gas infrastructure. Hydrogen, by contrast, offers higher environmental value owing to zero CO₂ and NOₓ emissions (when used in fuel cells), but requires advanced storage systems and substantial investment in logistics, which limits its use primarily to short-sea shipping or within closed supply chains. The findings can serve as a basis for shaping fleet decarbonisation strategies, developing safety standards, and fostering innovation in marine energy. The conclusions are of practical interest to shipowners, engineering companies, environmental regulators, and policymakers in the field of green marine fuels

Keywords

environmental safety, pollution prevention, NOₓ emissions, ammonia toxicity, fuel energy efficiency, port infrastructure, marine environment protection

Suggested citation
Melnyk, Oleksii, Bulgakov, M., Ocheretna, V., & Varlan, T. (2025). Hydrogen and ammonia as next-generation marine fuels in line with IMO 2050. Machinery & Energetics, 16(3), 70-80. https://doi.org/10.31548/machinery/3.2025.70
References
  1. Abbas, M., Abbas, Q., Khan, A., Tayyab, S.M., Rizvi, S.H.M., Raza, A., Zaidi, S.S.H., Razzaqi, A.A., Haider, S., & Sarfraz, S.A. (2024). Energy management in marine transportation sector. Comprehensive Energy Systems, 2(10), 126-156. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-44-313219-3.00151-9.
  2. Alrashid, R., Mahmoud, M., & Alami, A.H. (2024). Introduction to green hydrogen and green ammonia. In Comprehensive green materials (Vol. 1, pp. 256-271). Amsterdam: Elsevier. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-443-15738-7.00038-6.
  3. Arias, A., Nika, C.-E., Vasilaki, V., Feijoo, G., Moreira, M.T., & Katsou, E. (2024). Assessing the future prospects of emerging technologies for shipping and aviation biofuels: A critical review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 197, article number 114427. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2024.114427.
  4. Brynolf, S., Kanchiralla, F., Malmgren, E., Ellis, J., Olsson, T., Hansson, J., & Fridell, E. (2023). Hydrogen, ammonia and battery-electric propulsion for future shipping. Borlänge: Trafikverket, Lighthouse – Swedish Transport Administration’s Industry Program Sustainable Shipping.
  5. DNV. (n.d.). Energy transition outlook. Retrieved from https://www.dnv.com/energy-transition-outlook/.
  6. Fan, H., Abdussamie, N., Chen, P.S.-L., Harris, A., Gray, E.M., Arzaghi, E., Bhaskar, P., Mehr, J.A., & Penesis, I. (2025). Two decades of hydrogen-powered ships (2000-2024): Evolution, challenges, and future perspectives. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 219, article number 115878. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2025.115878.
  7. Harahap, F., Nurdiawati, A., Conti, D., Leduc, S., & Urban, F. (2023). Renewable marine fuel production for decarbonised maritime shipping: Pathways, policy measures and transition dynamics. Journal of Cleaner Production, 415, article number 137906. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137906.
  8. Holtze, B. (2023). World’s first liquid hydrogen-powered ship MF Hydra is powered by Ballard’s fuel cells. Retrieved from https://blog.ballard.com/marine/worlds-first-liquid-powered-hydrogen-ship-mf-hydra-is-powered-by-ballards-fuel-cells.
  9. IEA. (2023). World energy outlook 2023. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2023.
  10. IMO. (2020). MSC.1/Circ.1687: Interim guidelines for the safety of ships using alternative fuels. Retrieved from https://ammoniaenergy.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/MSC.1-Circ.1687-Interim-Guidelines-For-The-Safety-Of-Ships-Using-Ammonia-As-Fuel-Secretariat.pdf.
  11. IMO. (2023a). 2023 IMO strategy on reduction of GHG emissions from ships. Retrieved from https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/Pages/2023-IMO-Strategy-on-Reduction-of-GHG-Emissions-from-Ships.aspx.
  12. IMO. (2023b). Fourth IMO GHG study 2020. Retrieved from https://www.imo.org/en/ourwork/environment/pages/fourth-imo-greenhouse-gas-study-2020.aspx.
  13. Jesus, B., Ferreira, I.A., Carreira, A., Ove Erikstad, S., & Godina, R. (2024). Economic framework for green shipping corridors: Evaluating cost-effective transition from fossil fuels towards hydrogen. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 83, 1429-1447. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.08.147.
  14. Klebanoff, L.E. (2024). MV Sea Change: Fuel cell, emissions, and hydrogen fueling performance. Livermore, CA: Sandia National Laboratories.
  15. Lee, G.N., Kim, J.M., Jung, K.H., & Park, H. (2024). Comparative life cycle assessment of various hydrogen supply methods from Australia to the Republic of Korea in environmental and economic aspects. Science of The Total Environment, 947, article number 174669. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174669.
  16. Li, J.-C., Xu, H., Zhou, K., & Li, J.-Q. (2024). A review on the research progress and application of compressed hydrogen in the marine hydrogen fuel cell power system. Heliyon, 10(3), article number e25304. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e253045304.
  17. Li, Z., Wang, K., Liang, H., Wang, Y., Ma, R., Cao, J., & Huang, L. (2025). Marine alternative fuels for shipping decarbonization: Technologies, applications and challenges. Energy Conversion and Management, 329, article number 119641. doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119641.
  18. Machaj, K., Kupecki, J., Malecha, Z., Morawski, A., Skrzypkiewicz, M., Stanclik, M., & Chorowski, M. (2022). Ammonia as a potential marine fuel: A review. Energy Strategy Reviews, 44, article number 100926. doi: 10.1016/j.esr.2022.100926.
  19. Melnyk, O., Bulgakov, M., Fomin, O., Onyshchenko, S., Onishchenko, O., & Pulyaev, I. (2025). Sustainable development of renewable energy in shipping: Technological and environmental prospects. Scientific Journal of Silesian University of Technology. Series Transport, 127, 165-188. doi: 10.20858/sjsutst.2025.127.10.
  20. Melnyk, O., Onyshchenko, S., Onishchenko, O., Shumylo, O., Voloshyn, A., Ocheretna, V., & Fedorenko, O. (2024). Implementation research of alternative fuels and technologies in maritime transport. In S. Boichenko, A. Zaporozhets, A. Yakovlieva & I. Shkilniuk (Eds.), Studies in systems, decision and control (Vol. 510, pp. 13-21). Cham: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-44351-0_2.
  21. Nippon Yusen Kabushiki Kaisha (NYK Line). (2023). NYK Conducts world’s first test operation of ammonia-fueled vessel. Retrieved from https://www.nyk.com/english/news/2023/20230516_01.html.
  22. Rony, Z.I., Mofijur, M., Hasan, M.M., Rasul, M.G., Jahirul, M.I., Ahmed, S.F., Kalam, M.A., Badruddin, I.A., Khan, T.M.Y., & Show, P.-L. (2023). Alternative fuels to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from marine transport and promote UN sustainable development goals. Fuel, 338, article number 127220. doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2022.127220.
  23. Schreuder, W., Slootweg, J.C., & van der Zwaan, B. (2025). Techno-economic assessment of low-carbon ammonia as fuel for the maritime sector. Applications in Energy and Combustion Science, 22, article number 100330. doi: 10.1016/j.jaecs.2025.100330.
  24. Tasleem, S., Bongu, C.S., Krishnan, M.R., & Alsharaeh, E.H. (2024). Navigating the hydrogen prospect: A comprehensive review of sustainable source-based production technologies, transport solutions, advanced storage mechanisms, and CCUS integration. Journal of Energy Chemistry, 97, 166-215. doi: 10.1016/j.jechem.2024.05.022.
  25. Thomas, G., & Parks, G. (2006). Potential roles of ammonia in a hydrogen economy: A study of issues related to the use of ammonia for on-board vehicular hydrogen storage. Washington: U.S. Department of Energy.
  26. Valera-Medina, A., Xiao, H., Owen-Jones, M., David, W.I.F., & Bowen, P.J. (2018). Ammonia for power. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 69, 63-102. doi: 10.1016/j.pecs.2018.07.001.
  27. Van Sickle, E., Ralli, P., Pratt, J., & Klebanoff, L. (2025). MV Sea Change: The first commercial 100% hydrogen fuel cell passenger ferry in the world. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 105, 389-404. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2025.01.040.
  28. Wang, Y., Cao, Q., Liu, L., Wu, Y., Liu, H., Gu, Z., & Zhu, C. (2022). A review of low and zero carbon fuel technologies: Achieving ship carbon reduction targets. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 54, article number 102762. doi: 10.1016/j.seta.2022.102762.
  29. Wang, Z., Dong, B., Li, M., Ji, Y., & Han, F. (2024). Configuration of low-carbon fuels green marine power systems in diverse ship types and applications. Energy Conversion and Management, 302, article number 118139. doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2024.118139.
  30. Xing, H., Stuart, C., Spence, S., & Chen, H. (2021). Alternative fuel options for low carbon maritime transportation: Pathways to 2050. Journal of Cleaner Production, 297, article number 126651. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126651.